Bioenergy” is a broad term encompassing the use of renewable biomass to produce liquid and solid fuels, thermal energy and electric power. Within this section of Success Stories we include principally systems that produce heat and power from biomass, such as wood-fired boilers, cogeneration and other systems. Visit other sections of our Success Stories to learn about other bioenergy projects such as anaerobic digesters and biofuels production

Energy costs represent between 2% (at cattle feed lots) and 9% (for grain farming, due partly to grain drying) of farm production costs.^[2]

Use on dairy farms

In 2006 there were about 65,000 dairy farms in the United States, although most had fewer than 200 cows.^[3] One "resource auditor" believes it is possible for dairy farms to reach an energy usage of as low as 200 kWhr per cow per year^[4] although an analysis of California dairy farms found that 300 kWhr/year was the lowest actually attained.^[5]

One study^[6][7] found the following electrical usages on New York dairy farms:

• Milk cooling – 23%
• Ventilation – 21%
• Vacuum pumps – 18%
• Lighting – 17%
• Electrical water heating – 10%
• Feeding equipment – 7%

Another study^[8] found highly similar results.

Regulations

Hitherto almost entirely unregulated (except for zoning ordinances and the effects of property taxes), environmental concerns are now beginning to impose restrictions on farms.

How renewable energy projects may be implemented and also on what rate of return electricity producers can obtain from utilities are key current topics. Acts such as Wisconsin's Clean Energy Jobs Act (only proposed as of April, 2010) are controversial among farmers for these reasons.^[9] Canada's Green Energy Act 2009 implemented similar kinds of regulations.^[10]

Contrarily, Carbon offsets may soon offer farmers additional incentives to increase energy use efficiency. However, at least one proposed cap and trade process would raise farmers' costs by up to $1.19 (USD) per acre.^[11]

Fuel standards too (such as in the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007) are controversial, as biofuels are now a significant portion of farm income.^[12]

Efficiency increases

Increased efficiency in farm usage of electricity is being driven by Greening as well as by economics.

"The biggest users of electrical power are heat, light and motors. ... A recent study found that a 3-hp energy efficient compressor used over 42 percent fewer kilowatt-hours (kWhr) than a 3-hp conventional compressor."^[13]

Two prime areas for efficiency improvements are implementing the use of heat recovery systems and Variable Speed Drives.^[14] One organization postulated a three-year plan for farms to use energy better.^[15]

Crop rotation

Simply including years of either clover or alfalfa into the cycle of grain crops can yield savings without reducing total crop yields.^[16][17]

Farm energy audits

Farms sometimes use accredited "resource auditors"^[18] to analyze their operations and recommend improved efficiencies, typically at costs exceeding $1,000 per audit. However, typical full repayment of an audit's cost could be around six years.^[19] Also, a Certified Farm Energy Audit may be required for participation in state or federal energy efficiency programs.^[20]

An audit of 20 farms in Cumbria showed savings could be made in all areas examined.^[21]

An example of a farm energy audit in Maine is at the following reference.^[22] Maryland has a statewide program entitled EnSave.^[23]

Energy calculators

Recently a number of "energy calculators"^[24][25] have become available, addressing one or more aspects of farm energy usage. New calculators are being developed under government and utility grants, such as one in Oregon.

Dairy farm efficiency improvements

Some improvements are specific to dairy farms, such as using supplemental lighting with energy efficient lamps (which can increase milk production 5 to 16 percent) or relieving heat stress with a combination of sprinklers and fans to increase the cooling effect and improve energy use.^[26] California compiled a "Complete Guide" to dairy farm efficiency improvements.^[27]

[edit] Cow manure to electrical generation

Norswiss Farms of Rice Lake, Wisconsin, an 1100 cow dairy farm, expects to save over $70,000 per year (plus income from electricity sales) from its installation of an 848 kW Combined Heat and Power (CHP) system operating on anaerobic digesters gas from cow manure.^[28] The electricity generated is sold to the grid. A similar installation in 2004 on a 270 cow farm in California (one of five in the state at that time) powered a 75 kW generator.^[29]

Central Vermont Public Service has a "Cow Power" program using methane-fueled electricity from Vermont farms.^[30][31]

Government and utility incentives

U.S. utilities allocated $5.3 billion to energy efficiency programs in 2009.^[32]

Government and utility incentives can be beneficial to those entities as well. "It may be less expensive for governments to encourage efficiency and renewable energy options [in order to] delay or negate the need to upgrade and modernize rural grid infrastructure."^[33]

A partial list of incentives is available at the following reference:^[34] A link to relevant utility pages is at:^[35] A third partial list is at:^[36]

Alliant Energy in Wisconsin funds the installation of energy-saving projects, receiving payments on the monthly electric bills.^[37] National Grid has a similar program.^[38]

• Practice schedule irrigation, with monitoring of plant needs, and soil water reserve status to avoid water loss by drainage
• Prevent soil salinization by limiting water input to needs, and recycling water whenever possible
• Avoid crops with high water requirements in a low availability region
• Avoid drainage and fertilizer run-off
• Maintain permanent soil covering, in particular in winter to avoid nitrogen run-off
• Manage carefully water table, by limiting heavy output of water
• Restore or maintain wetlands (see marshlands)
• Provide good water points for livestock^[4]
• Insitu water harvesting by digging catch pits, crescent bunds across slope

Good Agricultural Practices are a collection of principles to apply for on-farm production and post-production processes, resulting in safe and healthy food and non-food agricultural products, while taking into account economical, social and environmental sustainability.

GAPs may be applied to a wide range of farming systems and at different scales. They are applied through sustainable agricultural methods, such as integrated pest management, integrated fertilizer management and conservation agriculture. They rely on four principles:

• Economically and efficiently produce sufficient (food security), safe (food safety) and nutritious food (food quality) ^[1];
• Sustain and enhance natural resources;
• Maintain viable farming enterprises and contribute to sustainable livelihoods;
• Meet cultural and social demands of society.

The concept of GAPs has changed in recent years because of a rapidly changing agriculture, globalization of world trade, food crisis (mad cow disease), nitrate pollution of water, appearance of pesticide resistance, soil erosion...

GAPs applications are being developed by governments, NGOs and private sector to meet farmers and transformers needs and specific requirements. However, many think these applications are only rarely made in a holistic or coordinated way.

They provide the opportunity to assess and decide on which farming practices to follow at each step in the production process. For each agricultural production system, they aim at allowing a comprehensive management strategy, providing for the capability for tactical adjustments in response to changes. The implementation of such a management strategy requires knowing, understanding, planning, measuring, monitoring, and record-keeping at each step of the production process. Adoption of GAPs may result in higher production, transformation and marketing costs, hence finally higher costs for the consumer. To minimize production costs and maintain the quality of agri-food, ACIAR offers a series of advisable online publications to benefit farmers ^[2]

GAPs require maintaining a common database on integrated production techniques for each of the major agro-ecological area (see ecoregion), thus to collect, analyze and disseminate information of good practices in relevant geographical contexts.

Agriculture is the production of food and goods through farming. Agriculture was the key development that led to the rise of human civilization, with the husbandry of domesticated animals and plants (i.e. crops) creating food surpluses that enabled the development of more densely populated and stratified societies. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science. Agriculture is also observed in certain species of ant and termite.[1][2] Agriculture encompasses a wide variety of specialties and techniques, including ways to expand the lands suitable for plant raising, by digging water-channels and other forms of irrigation. Cultivation of crops on arable land and the pastoral herding of livestock on rangeland remain at the foundation of agriculture. In the past century there has been increasing concern to identify and quantify various forms of agriculture. In the developed world the range usually extends between sustainable agriculture (e.g. permaculture or organic agriculture) and intensive farming (e.g. industrial agriculture). Modern agronomy, plant breeding, pesticides and fertilizers, and technological improvements have sharply increased yields from cultivation, and at the same time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health effects.[3] Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry such as intensive pig farming (and similar practices applied to the chicken) have similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal cruelty and the health effects of the antibiotics, growth hormones, and other chemicals commonly used in industrial meat production.[4] The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. In the 2000s, plants have been used to grow biofuels, biopharmaceuticals, bioplastics,[5] and pharmaceuticals.[6] Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, and meat. Fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo. Other useful materials are produced by plants, such as resins. Biofuels include methane from biomass, ethanol, and biodiesel. Cut flowers, nursery plants, tropical fish and birds for the pet trade are some of the ornamental products. In 2007, about one third of the world's workers were employed in agriculture. The services sector has overtaken agriculture as the economic sector employing the most people worldwide.[7] Despite the size of its workforce, agricultural production accounts for less than five percent of the gross world product (an aggregate of all gross domestic products).

Beginning in about 7,500 BC with classical millet agriculture, China's development of farming over the course of its history has played a key role in supporting the growth of what is now the largest population in the world. Jared Diamond estimated that the earliest attested domestication of rice took place in China by 7500 BC^[1] Excavations at Kuahuqiao, the earliest known Neolithic site in eastern China, have documented rice cultivation 7,700 years ago.^[2] Finds at the ruins of the Hemudu Culture in Yuyao and Banpo Village near Xi'an, which all date back 6,000 to 7,000 years, include rice, millet and spade-like farm tools made of stone and bone. The first signs of settled agriculture however was around 5000 B.C